Episodic Memory
Directed Forgetting Task
Also called: item-method directed forgetting, intentional forgetting task, remember-forget task, DF task
Measure intentional forgetting with pictures followed by REMEMBER or FORGET and a recognition test of every picture.
9-12 minUntimed
Free to start: 10 free participants per account, then $0.99 per participant for academic research, or any yearly plan. Preview any test free after you sign up.
- Papers, 2021 to 2025
- 191
- Evidence grade
- D
- Registered clinical studies
- 0
What it measures
Measures intentional forgetting with the item method. Each picture is followed by REMEMBER or FORGET; a recognition test of every picture then compares memory for the two kinds.
Constructs
- Intentional forgetting
- Episodic memory
- Recognition memory
- Control of memory encoding
Research uses
- Research on memory control in anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress
- Aging and memory research
- Individual-difference studies of memory control
How the paradigm works
The Directed Forgetting Task measures intentional forgetting: how much a cue to forget lowers later memory. Pictures of everyday objects and animals appear one at a time. Each picture shows for 2 seconds and is followed for 2.5 seconds by the word REMEMBER or FORGET. Participants try to remember the REMEMBER pictures and are told they can forget the FORGET pictures.
More about the paradigm
The task follows the item method of directed forgetting with a recognition test (Basden et al. 1993; MacLeod 1999), with pictures of everyday objects as in Scotti and Maxcey (2022). After the study list, true-or-false arithmetic fills a 60-second delay, adjustable from 0 to 120 seconds. The test then shows every studied picture and as many new ones, one at a time, answered Seen or New with no time limit; the instructions ask for Seen on every studied picture, whichever word followed it. The standard list has 24 pictures with each word, so the test has 96 pictures; a setting gives 16 to 24 per word. A practice of 4 pictures comes first, with a short test of the 2 REMEMBER pictures and 2 new ones and feedback, so the practice never shows that FORGET pictures are tested.
The pictures are 102 emoji from Noto Emoji, chosen by a stated rule: everyday objects and animals, one of each kind, none that another test in the library shows. Each session gives every picture its role at random: REMEMBER, FORGET or new.
The main score is the directed forgetting effect: the share of REMEMBER pictures recognized minus the share of FORGET pictures recognized. Corrected recognition (hits minus false alarms) and d′ for each word, the false alarm rate and answer times are also reported. The effect is smaller for pictures than for words: about 4 to 7 percentage points for pictures of everyday objects, against roughly 10 to 30 for words (Scotti and Maxcey 2022). Scores support research and do not diagnose.
No norms are applied to this task. The effect is a difference between two kinds of pictures with no better direction, so sessions are not ranked against other people. Use the scores for raw analysis and within-study comparison.
Scores
- Directed Forgetting Effect%
- Hit rate for pictures followed by REMEMBER minus hit rate for pictures followed by FORGET.
- Positive when REMEMBER pictures were recognized more often; no better direction
- Hit Rate, REMEMBER%
- Share of pictures followed by REMEMBER answered Seen.
- Higher means better memory for these pictures
- Hit Rate, FORGET%
- Share of pictures followed by FORGET answered Seen.
- Lower means more forgetting of these pictures
- False Alarm Rate%
- Share of new pictures answered Seen.
- Lower is better
- Corrected Recognition, REMEMBER%
- REMEMBER hit rate minus the false alarm rate.
- Higher means better memory for these pictures
- Corrected Recognition, FORGET%
- FORGET hit rate minus the false alarm rate.
- Lower means more forgetting of these pictures
- d-Prime, REMEMBERd'
- z(REMEMBER hit rate) minus z(false alarm rate), with the log-linear correction.
- Higher means better memory for these pictures
- d-Prime, FORGETd'
- z(FORGET hit rate) minus z(false alarm rate), with the log-linear correction.
- Lower means more forgetting of these pictures
- d-Prime Effectd'
- REMEMBER d-prime minus FORGET d-prime.
- Positive when REMEMBER pictures were recognized better
- d-Primed'
- z(hit rate for all studied pictures) minus z(false alarm rate), with the log-linear correction.
- Higher means better recognition overall
- Recognition Accuracy%
- Share of test pictures answered correctly, Seen for studied and New for new pictures.
- Higher is better
- Answer Time, REMEMBER Hitsms
- Median time to answer Seen to pictures followed by REMEMBER.
- Context for the hit rates
- Answer Time, FORGET Hitsms
- Median time to answer Seen to pictures followed by FORGET.
- Context for the hit rates
- Answer Time, Correct Rejectionsms
- Median time to answer New to new pictures.
- Context for the false alarm rate
- Anticipationscount
- Test answers faster than 100 ms, left out of every score.
- Lower is better
- Pictures Testedcount
- Test pictures shown in the scored run (96 at the standard settings).
- Informational
- Delay Arithmetic Accuracy%
- Share of true-or-false arithmetic problems in the delay answered correctly.
- Context for the delay
- Delayseconds
- Seconds of arithmetic between the study list and the test.
- Informational
Use and evidence
191 papers from 2021 to 2025 name this task in their title or abstract, down 10% compared with 2016 to 2020. That ranks it 127 of 395 test families in our census. See the counts for every test.
Show the numbers
| Year | Papers |
|---|---|
| 2025 | 38 |
| 2024 | 23 |
| 2023 | 38 |
| 2022 | 41 |
| 2021 | 51 |
| 2020 | 45 |
| 2019 | 54 |
| 2018 | 33 |
| 2017 | 47 |
| 2016 | 33 |
| 2015 | 34 |
| 2014 | 49 |
| 2013 | 49 |
| 2012 | 54 |
| 2011 | 51 |
| 2010 | 39 |
| 2009 | 40 |
| 2008 | 41 |
| 2007 | 39 |
| 2006 | 29 |
| 2005 | 25 |
| 2004 | 23 |
| 2003 | 25 |
| 2002 | 11 |
| 2001 | 11 |
| 2000 | 19 |
Use grade C
100 to 299 papers from 2021 to 2025.
Evidence grade D
Little published measurement evidence found.
- Papers on test-retest reliability
- 0
- Papers on reliability or validity
- 14
- Registered clinical studies using it as an outcome
- 0
How the grades work
Use: A is 1,000 or more papers from 2021 to 2025, B 300 to 999, C 100 to 299, D 30 to 99 and E fewer than 30. Evidence: A means at least 25 papers report its test-retest reliability and at least 25 registered clinical studies use it as an outcome; B, at least 8 test-retest papers, and either 5 registered clinical studies or 150 reliability or validity papers; C, at least 2 test-retest papers, 30 reliability or validity papers or 3 registered clinical studies; D, little published measurement evidence found. The counts measure use. They include every paper that names the task in its title or abstract. Grades describe the published research on this task, not ConductCognition's version of it.
Source: ConductCognition test census 0.14.0, counted 31 October 2026 from OpenAlex and ClinicalTrials.gov.
Task design
The trial sequence as the test runs in ConductCognition.
- Pictures
- 102 emoji pictures of everyday objects and animals from Noto Emoji: 96 for the test and 6 for practice.
- Study list
- 48 pictures (standard; 16 to 24 with each word), each after a 500 ms cross for 2,000 ms, then REMEMBER or FORGET for 2,500 ms. No more than 4 of one word in a row.
- Delay
- 60 seconds of true-or-false arithmetic (standard; 0 to 120).
- Test
- Every studied picture and as many new ones, 96 in all, answered Seen or New with no time limit. Seen is the right answer for every studied picture, whichever word followed it. No more than 4 old or new pictures in a row.
- Practice
- 4 pictures, 2 with each word, then a test of the 2 REMEMBER pictures and 2 new ones with 1,500 ms of feedback.
- Roles
- Each session gives every picture its role at random: REMEMBER, FORGET or new.
Published item-method studies mostly use words. With pictures the effect is smaller: about 4 to 7 percentage points for everyday objects against roughly 10 to 30 for words (Scotti and Maxcey 2022).
Quality checks
Each session is marked valid, needs review or invalid, with the reason, before you see its scores.
Scored rows: directed_forgetting_test from the scored run, one Seen or New answer per picture, with the delay arithmetic from the same run. Seen or New accuracy significantly below chance (one-sided exact binomial, p < .05, chance 50%) invalidates; accuracy not above chance over 10 or more answers is flagged. The same answer on 90% of the pictures invalidates when accuracy is not above chance. Answers under 200 ms on at least half of 4 or more answered pictures invalidate. No arithmetic answered in the delay, or delay arithmetic at or below chance over at least 10 answers, is flagged. A hidden tab withholds the percentile.
Why these rules
Half the test pictures were studied and half are new, so guessing gives 50%: Accuracy significantly below chance (one-sided exact test, p < .05) cannot come from guessing; it means the response mapping was reversed or the task was not followed (Slick, Sherman and Iverson 1999 treat below-chance forced-choice performance as definite response bias). Chance-level accuracy can be a real result in impaired participants, so it is only flagged. One option on at least 90% of answered trials, when the correct options are balanced and accuracy is not above chance, means the answers did not depend on the items (the task counterpart of long-string responding in surveys; Curran 2016). An answer under 200 ms is faster than a simple visual reaction, so it cannot reflect the item. Following response-time effort screening for untimed tests (Wise and Kong 2005), the session is invalid only when at least half the answers are that fast. The instructions ask for Seen on every studied picture, so accuracy is judged over REMEMBER and FORGET pictures alike; the effect itself, which may be zero or negative, is never judged. Skipping the delay arithmetic means that part of the procedure may not have been followed. A hidden tab lets the study, delay or response timers run without the participant, so a percentile is withheld after one.
No percentile. Scores and quality flags only.
Running this test
Settings you can change
| Setting | Standard | Allowed |
|---|---|---|
| Pictures per word | 24 | 16 to 24 |
| Arithmetic delay (seconds) | 60 | 0 to 120 |
Yearly plans can change settings within these limits. Free and pay-as-you-go studies use the standard settings.
Need a setting this test does not have?
Devices and languages
- Untimed test: runs on desktops, laptops, tablets and phones. Participant devices
- Languages: English, Spanish, French, German, Italian, Portuguese (Brazil), Chinese (Simplified) and Japanese.
- Available on: Every plan, including the free plan.
- No percentile. Scores and quality flags only. How norms work
- Recruiting online? See the setup guides for Prolific, Sona Systems, CloudResearch Connect and Qualtrics.
Cite and describe
Participants completed the Directed Forgetting Task in a web browser (ConductCognition task version 1.0.0, scoring version 1.0.0; Basden, Basden & Gargano, 1993), with the standard settings (pictures per word: 24; arithmetic delay (seconds): 60). The main score was directed forgetting effect (hit rate for pictures followed by REMEMBER minus hit rate for pictures followed by FORGET).
ConductCognition versions: task version 1.0.0, scoring version 1.0.0. Every export records the versions each session used, for a methods section.
- Basden, B. H., Basden, D. R., & Gargano, G. J. (1993). Directed forgetting in implicit and explicit memory tests: A comparison of methods. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19(3), 603-616. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.19.3.603
- Scotti, P. S., & Maxcey, A. M. (2022). Directed forgetting of pictures of everyday objects. Journal of Vision, 22(10), 8. https://doi.org/10.1167/jov.22.10.8Item method with pictures: 2 s per picture, 2.5 s per word and a recognition test.
- MacLeod, C. M. (1999). The item and list methods of directed forgetting: Test differences and the role of demand characteristics. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 6(1), 123-129. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03210819The item and list methods compared across tests.
- Hautus, M. J. (1995). Corrections for extreme proportions and their biasing effects on estimated values of d'. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 27(1), 46-51. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03203619The log-linear correction for d-prime.
Source papers
- Basden BH, Basden DR, Gargano GJ (1993). Directed forgetting in implicit and explicit memory tests: a comparison of methods. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19(3):603-616.Paradigm source, Adults
- MacLeod CM (1999). The item and list methods of directed forgetting: test differences and the role of demand characteristics. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 6(1):123-129.Paradigm source, Adults
- Scotti PS, Maxcey AM (2022). Directed forgetting of pictures of everyday objects. Journal of Vision, 22(10):8.Paradigm source, Adults
- Titz C, Verhaeghen P (2010). Aging and directed forgetting in episodic memory: a meta-analysis. Psychology and Aging, 25(2):405-411.Paradigm source, Younger and older adults
Questions
How long does the Directed Forgetting Task take?
About 9 to 12 minutes, as listed in the test library.
What device does a participant need?
Untimed test: runs on desktops, laptops, tablets and phones. The browser must be Chrome, Edge, Firefox or Safari.
What scores does it produce?
Directed Forgetting Effect, Hit Rate, REMEMBER, Hit Rate, FORGET, False Alarm Rate, Corrected Recognition, REMEMBER, Corrected Recognition, FORGET, d-Prime, REMEMBER, d-Prime, FORGET, d-Prime Effect, d-Prime, Recognition Accuracy, Answer Time, REMEMBER Hits, Answer Time, FORGET Hits, Answer Time, Correct Rejections, Anticipations, Pictures Tested, Delay Arithmetic Accuracy and Delay. Each session is also marked valid, needs review or invalid, with the reason.
How widely is the Directed Forgetting Task used in research?
191 papers from 2021 to 2025 name it in their title or abstract, down 10% compared with 2016 to 2020. That ranks it 127 of 395 test families in the ConductCognition test census (use grade C). Source: ConductCognition test census 0.14.0, counted 31 October 2026 from OpenAlex and ClinicalTrials.gov.
How much reliability evidence does the Directed Forgetting Task have?
In the published research, 0 papers report its test-retest reliability and 0 registered clinical studies use it as an outcome (evidence grade D in the ConductCognition test census).
Does it report a percentile?
No. Scores and quality flags only.
Which settings can a researcher change?
Pictures per word (16 to 24) and arithmetic delay (seconds) (0 to 120). Settings can be changed on yearly plans; free and pay-as-you-go studies use the standard settings.
Which languages can participants use?
Participants can take this test in English, Spanish, French, German, Italian, Portuguese (Brazil), Chinese (Simplified) and Japanese. English is on every plan, and the other languages come with yearly plans. Have a native speaker read the machine-translated text before launch.
Is this a clinical test?
No. ConductCognition is for research use only. It runs, scores and exports the test; clinical interpretation is outside the platform.
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