Episodic Memory
Associative Recognition Test
Also called: associative recognition task, intact rearranged pairs test, pair recognition test, associative memory test
Measure memory for which pictures appeared together, with intact and rearranged picture pairs and associative d-prime.
6-9 minUntimed
Free to start: 10 free participants per account, then $0.99 per participant for academic research, or any yearly plan. Preview any test free after you sign up.
- Papers, 2021 to 2025
- 166
- Evidence grade
- C
- Registered clinical studies
- 5
What it measures
Measures memory for which pictures appeared together. Participants study pairs of pictures, then judge whether each test pair is a pair they studied or two studied pictures from different pairs.
Constructs
- Associative memory
- Episodic memory
- Recollection
- Recognition memory
Research uses
- Research on memory change in aging and mild cognitive impairment
- Research on hippocampal and medial temporal lobe function
- Studies of memory interventions and encoding strategies
How the paradigm works
The Associative Recognition Test measures memory for associations: which things appeared together, as opposed to which things appeared at all. Participants study pairs of pictures. In the test every pair is made of two studied pictures: half are pairs as they were studied (intact) and half join pictures from two different studied pairs (rearranged). Because every picture is familiar, only memory for the pairing tells the two kinds apart.
More about the paradigm
The task follows the intact versus rearranged pairs method (Hockley 1992; Yonelinas 1997), with pictures as in Endemann and Kamp (2022). Each pair shows for 3 seconds with a 500 ms blank, as in Hockley and Consoli (1999), and the instructions suggest imagining the two things together. Study and test alternate in two blocks: 16 pairs are studied, 30 seconds of true-or-false arithmetic follow (0 to 60 as a setting), and then 16 test pairs, 8 intact and 8 rearranged, are answered Same pair or Different pairs with no time limit. Rearranged pairs keep each picture on its side and join pictures from pairs at least 2 places apart in the study list. A practice block of 4 pairs, tested with feedback, comes first. The session takes about 6 to 9 minutes; the study time per pair can be set from 2 to 5 seconds.
The pictures are 72 emoji from Noto Emoji, everyday objects and animals that no other test in the library shows, joined into 36 pairs of unrelated things by a stated rule: 32 test pairs and 4 practice pairs. Each session gives every pair its block and its role, intact or rearranged, at random.
The main score is associative d′: z(hit rate) minus z(false alarm rate), where a hit is Same pair for an intact pair and a false alarm is Same pair for a rearranged pair, with the log-linear correction (Hautus 1995). The hit and false alarm rates, Pr (hits minus false alarms), the response criterion c, accuracy, answer times and d′ in each block are also reported. Memory for associations declines more with age than memory for single items (Old and Naveh-Benjamin 2008). Scores support research and do not diagnose.
Scores
- Associative d-Primed'
- z(hit rate) minus z(false alarm rate): Same pair for intact pairs against Same pair for rearranged pairs, with the log-linear correction.
- Higher means better memory for which pictures went together
- Hit Rate%
- Share of intact pairs answered Same pair.
- Higher is better
- False Alarm Rate%
- Share of rearranged pairs answered Same pair.
- Lower is better
- Associative Pr%
- Hit rate minus false alarm rate.
- Higher is better
- Response Criterion (c)z
- Minus half the sum of the corrected z scores of the hit and false alarm rates.
- Positive means a leaning towards Different pairs; no better direction
- Accuracy%
- Share of test pairs answered correctly.
- Higher is better
- Answer Time, Hitsms
- Median time to answer Same pair to intact pairs.
- Context for the hit rate
- Answer Time, Correct Rejectionsms
- Median time to answer Different pairs to rearranged pairs.
- Context for the false alarm rate
- Associative d-Prime, Block 1d'
- Associative d-prime in the first study-test block.
- Higher is better
- Associative d-Prime, Block 2d'
- Associative d-prime in the second study-test block.
- Higher is better
- Anticipationscount
- Test answers faster than 100 ms, left out of every score.
- Lower is better
- Pairs Testedcount
- Test pairs in the scored run (32 at the standard settings).
- Informational
- Delay Arithmetic Accuracy%
- Share of true-or-false arithmetic problems in the delays answered correctly.
- Context for the delays
- Delayseconds
- Seconds of arithmetic between each study list and its test.
- Informational
Use and evidence
166 papers from 2021 to 2025 name this task in their title or abstract, down 8% compared with 2016 to 2020. That ranks it 142 of 395 test families in our census. See the counts for every test.
Show the numbers
| Year | Papers |
|---|---|
| 2025 | 37 |
| 2024 | 39 |
| 2023 | 29 |
| 2022 | 30 |
| 2021 | 31 |
| 2020 | 36 |
| 2019 | 29 |
| 2018 | 41 |
| 2017 | 28 |
| 2016 | 47 |
| 2015 | 35 |
| 2014 | 42 |
| 2013 | 29 |
| 2012 | 30 |
| 2011 | 35 |
| 2010 | 23 |
| 2009 | 26 |
| 2008 | 31 |
| 2007 | 19 |
| 2006 | 17 |
| 2005 | 15 |
| 2004 | 21 |
| 2003 | 14 |
| 2002 | 5 |
| 2001 | 15 |
| 2000 | 12 |
Use grade C
100 to 299 papers from 2021 to 2025.
Evidence grade C
At least 2 test-retest papers, 30 reliability or validity papers or 3 registered clinical studies.
- Papers on test-retest reliability
- 0
- Papers on reliability or validity
- 15
- Registered clinical studies using it as an outcome
- 5
How the grades work
Use: A is 1,000 or more papers from 2021 to 2025, B 300 to 999, C 100 to 299, D 30 to 99 and E fewer than 30. Evidence: A means at least 25 papers report its test-retest reliability and at least 25 registered clinical studies use it as an outcome; B, at least 8 test-retest papers, and either 5 registered clinical studies or 150 reliability or validity papers; C, at least 2 test-retest papers, 30 reliability or validity papers or 3 registered clinical studies; D, little published measurement evidence found. The counts measure use. They include every paper that names the task in its title or abstract. Grades describe the published research on this task, not ConductCognition's version of it.
Source: ConductCognition test census 0.14.0, counted 31 October 2026 from OpenAlex and ClinicalTrials.gov.
Task design
The trial sequence as the test runs in ConductCognition.
- Pictures
- 72 emoji pictures from Noto Emoji in 36 pairs: 32 for the test and 4 for practice.
- Study
- 2 blocks of 16 pairs, each pair for 3 seconds (standard; 2 to 5) with a 500 ms blank.
- Delay
- 30 seconds of true-or-false arithmetic before each test (standard; 0 to 60).
- Test
- 16 pairs per block, 8 intact and 8 rearranged, answered Same pair or Different pairs with no time limit. Rearranged pairs keep each picture on its side and join pairs at least 2 places apart in the study list. No more than 3 of one kind in a row.
- Practice
- 4 pairs, then 2 intact and 2 rearranged with 1,500 ms of feedback.
- Roles
- Each session gives every pair its block and its role, intact or rearranged, at random.
Most associative recognition studies use word pairs. Here the pairs are pictures, so values may differ from published ones.
Quality checks
Each session is marked valid, needs review or invalid, with the reason, before you see its scores.
Scored rows: associative_recognition_test from the scored run, one Same pair or Different pairs answer per test pair, with the delay arithmetic from the same run. Accuracy significantly below chance (one-sided exact binomial, p < .05, chance 50%) invalidates; accuracy not above chance over 10 or more answers is flagged. The same answer on 90% of the pairs invalidates when accuracy is not above chance. Answers under 200 ms on at least half of 4 or more answered pairs invalidate. No arithmetic answered in the delays, or delay arithmetic at or below chance over at least 10 answers, is flagged. A hidden tab withholds the percentile.
Why these rules
Half the test pairs are intact and half rearranged, so guessing gives 50%: Accuracy significantly below chance (one-sided exact test, p < .05) cannot come from guessing; it means the response mapping was reversed or the task was not followed (Slick, Sherman and Iverson 1999 treat below-chance forced-choice performance as definite response bias). Chance-level accuracy can be a real result in impaired participants, so it is only flagged. One option on at least 90% of answered trials, when the correct options are balanced and accuracy is not above chance, means the answers did not depend on the items (the task counterpart of long-string responding in surveys; Curran 2016). An answer under 200 ms is faster than a simple visual reaction, so it cannot reflect the item. Following response-time effort screening for untimed tests (Wise and Kong 2005), the session is invalid only when at least half the answers are that fast. Skipping the delay arithmetic means that part of the procedure may not have been followed. A hidden tab lets the study, delay or response timers run without the participant, so a percentile is withheld after one.
Running this test
Settings you can change
| Setting | Standard | Allowed |
|---|---|---|
| Study time per pair (seconds) | 3 | 2 to 5 |
| Arithmetic delay (seconds) | 30 | 0 to 60 |
Yearly plans can change settings within these limits. Free and pay-as-you-go studies use the standard settings.
Need a setting this test does not have?
Devices and languages
- Untimed test: runs on desktops, laptops, tablets and phones. Participant devices
- Languages: English, Spanish, French, German, Italian, Portuguese (Brazil), Chinese (Simplified) and Japanese.
- Available on: Every plan, including the free plan.
- Recruiting online? See the setup guides for Prolific, Sona Systems, CloudResearch Connect and Qualtrics.
Cite and describe
Participants completed the Associative Recognition Test in a web browser (ConductCognition task version 1.0.0, scoring version 1.0.0; Hockley, 1992), with the standard settings (study time per pair (seconds): 3; arithmetic delay (seconds): 30). The main score was associative d-prime (z(hit rate) minus z(false alarm rate): Same pair for intact pairs against Same pair for rearranged pairs, with the log-linear correction).
ConductCognition versions: task version 1.0.0, scoring version 1.0.0. Every export records the versions each session used, for a methods section.
- Hockley, W. E. (1992). Item versus associative information: Further comparisons of forgetting rates. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18(6), 1321-1330. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.18.6.1321
- Yonelinas, A. P. (1997). Recognition memory ROCs for item and associative information: The contribution of recollection and familiarity. Memory & Cognition, 25(6), 747-763. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03211318Intact and rearranged pairs in repeated study-test lists.
- Hockley, W. E., & Consoli, A. (1999). Familiarity and recollection in item and associative recognition. Memory & Cognition, 27(4), 657-664. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF032115593 seconds per pair and rearranged pairs that keep each item's side.
- Hautus, M. J. (1995). Corrections for extreme proportions and their biasing effects on estimated values of d'. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 27(1), 46-51. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03203619The log-linear correction for d-prime.
Source papers
- Hockley WE (1992). Item versus associative information: further comparisons of forgetting rates. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18(6):1321-1330.Paradigm source, Adults
- Yonelinas AP (1997). Recognition memory ROCs for item and associative information: the contribution of recollection and familiarity. Memory & Cognition, 25(6):747-763.Paradigm source, Young adults
- Hockley WE, Consoli A (1999). Familiarity and recollection in item and associative recognition. Memory & Cognition, 27(4):657-664.Paradigm source, Young adults
- Old SR, Naveh-Benjamin M (2008). Differential effects of age on item and associative measures of memory: a meta-analysis. Psychology and Aging, 23(1):104-118.Paradigm source, Younger and older adults
Questions
How long does the Associative Recognition Test take?
About 6 to 9 minutes, as listed in the test library.
What device does a participant need?
Untimed test: runs on desktops, laptops, tablets and phones. The browser must be Chrome, Edge, Firefox or Safari.
What scores does it produce?
Associative d-Prime, Hit Rate, False Alarm Rate, Associative Pr, Response Criterion (c), Accuracy, Answer Time, Hits, Answer Time, Correct Rejections, Associative d-Prime, Block 1, Associative d-Prime, Block 2, Anticipations, Pairs Tested, Delay Arithmetic Accuracy and Delay. Each session is also marked valid, needs review or invalid, with the reason.
How widely is the Associative Recognition Test used in research?
166 papers from 2021 to 2025 name it in their title or abstract, down 8% compared with 2016 to 2020. That ranks it 142 of 395 test families in the ConductCognition test census (use grade C). Source: ConductCognition test census 0.14.0, counted 31 October 2026 from OpenAlex and ClinicalTrials.gov.
How much reliability evidence does the Associative Recognition Test have?
In the published research, 0 papers report its test-retest reliability and 5 registered clinical studies use it as an outcome (evidence grade C in the ConductCognition test census).
Which settings can a researcher change?
Study time per pair (seconds) (2 to 5) and arithmetic delay (seconds) (0 to 60). Settings can be changed on yearly plans; free and pay-as-you-go studies use the standard settings.
Which languages can participants use?
Participants can take this test in English, Spanish, French, German, Italian, Portuguese (Brazil), Chinese (Simplified) and Japanese. English is on every plan, and the other languages come with yearly plans. Have a native speaker read the machine-translated text before launch.
Is this a clinical test?
No. ConductCognition is for research use only. It runs, scores and exports the test; clinical interpretation is outside the platform.
Every test: the full test list.
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