Spatial Cognition
3D Mental Rotation Test
Also called: Shepard-Metzler task, three-dimensional mental rotation, chronometric mental rotation, cube figures, same or mirror task
Measure mental rotation of three-dimensional cube figures with timed same or mirror-image judgments, scored by the rotation slope.
6-8 minTimed: desktop or laptop with a mouse or trackpad
Free to start: 10 free participants per account, then $0.99 per participant for academic research, or any yearly plan. Preview any test free after you sign up.
- Papers, 2021 to 2025
- 84
- Evidence grade
- C
- Registered clinical studies
- 2
What it measures
Measures mental rotation of three-dimensional objects with the Shepard and Metzler procedure. Participants judge whether two figures made of cubes are the same object turned in depth or mirror images.
Constructs
- Mental rotation
- Three-dimensional spatial transformation
- Visuospatial processing
- Mirror-image discrimination
Research uses
- Spatial cognition research
- Individual-differences research on spatial ability
- Aging and development studies
- Within-study group comparison
How the paradigm works
The 3D mental rotation test measures how quickly people turn an object in mind. Each trial shows two objects made of ten cubes side by side. The object on the right is the same object or its mirror image, turned about the vertical axis by 0, 50, 100 or 150 degrees. Participants press the left arrow key for the same object and the right arrow key for a mirror image. The pair stays until a key press or 7.5 seconds, after a 250 ms blank.
More about the paradigm
The objects follow Shepard and Metzler (1971): ten cubes joined face to face in four straight arms with three right-angle bends, so no turn can make an object match its mirror image. The six test objects and two practice objects are drawn by the task's own code as shaded cubes seen from 30 degrees above, each from a starting view chosen so that every cube shows and no arm hides another. The angles, timing and trial counts follow the validated procedure of Ganis and Kievit (2015). Each block of 48 trials shows every object at every angle once as the same object and once as its mirror image, with no more than three of either kind in a row. The standard session has two blocks, 96 trials, after 8 practice trials with feedback, in about 7 minutes; a setting gives one or three blocks.
The main score is the rotation slope: how many milliseconds each degree of turn adds to the mean correct response time for same-object pairs, fitted across the four angles. Times under 100 ms and times more than 2 standard deviations from their angle's mean are left out. The intercept, accuracy overall, for same and mirror pairs and at each angle, and response times are also reported. A shallower slope means faster mental rotation. Scores support research and do not diagnose.
Scores
- Rotation Slopems/degree
- Increase in mean correct response time per degree of turn on same-object pairs, fitted across the four angles.
- Lower means faster rotation
- Accuracy%
- Share of test pairs answered correctly. Pairs not answered within 7.5 seconds count as errors.
- Higher is better
- Rotation Interceptms
- Fitted response time at 0 degrees, which covers seeing, comparing and responding.
- Informational
- Mean Correct RTms
- Mean response time on correct pairs, same and mirror. The median is also reported.
- Lower is faster
- Same-Object Accuracy%
- Accuracy on pairs that show the same object.
- Higher is better
- Mirror-Image Accuracy%
- Accuracy on pairs that show a mirror image.
- Higher is better
- Accuracy at 150 Degrees%
- Accuracy on pairs turned 150 degrees apart, the hardest angle; accuracy at 0, 50 and 100 degrees is also reported.
- Higher is better
- Same-Object RT at 150 Degreesms
- Mean correct response time on same-object pairs turned 150 degrees apart; the times at 0, 50 and 100 degrees are the other points of the slope.
- Lower is faster
- Missed Pairscount
- Test pairs not answered within 7.5 seconds.
- Lower is better
- Anticipationscount
- Answers given less than 100 ms after the pair appeared.
- Lower is better
Use and evidence
84 papers from 2021 to 2025 name this task in their title or abstract, up 25% compared with 2016 to 2020. That ranks it 200 of 395 test families in our census. See the counts for every test.
Show the numbers
| Year | Papers |
|---|---|
| 2025 | 16 |
| 2024 | 26 |
| 2023 | 12 |
| 2022 | 15 |
| 2021 | 15 |
| 2020 | 13 |
| 2019 | 16 |
| 2018 | 20 |
| 2017 | 8 |
| 2016 | 10 |
| 2015 | 14 |
| 2014 | 9 |
| 2013 | 13 |
| 2012 | 9 |
| 2011 | 7 |
| 2010 | 11 |
| 2009 | 3 |
| 2008 | 6 |
| 2007 | 3 |
| 2006 | 10 |
| 2005 | 4 |
| 2004 | 5 |
| 2003 | 7 |
| 2002 | 5 |
| 2001 | 3 |
| 2000 | 2 |
Use grade D
30 to 99 papers from 2021 to 2025.
Evidence grade C
At least 2 test-retest papers, 30 reliability or validity papers or 3 registered clinical studies.
- Papers on test-retest reliability
- 2
- Papers on reliability or validity
- 22
- Registered clinical studies using it as an outcome
- 2
How the grades work
Use: A is 1,000 or more papers from 2021 to 2025, B 300 to 999, C 100 to 299, D 30 to 99 and E fewer than 30. Evidence: A means at least 25 papers report its test-retest reliability and at least 25 registered clinical studies use it as an outcome; B, at least 8 test-retest papers, and either 5 registered clinical studies or 150 reliability or validity papers; C, at least 2 test-retest papers, 30 reliability or validity papers or 3 registered clinical studies; D, little published measurement evidence found. The counts measure use. They include every paper that names the task in its title or abstract. Grades describe the published research on this task, not ConductCognition's version of it.
Source: ConductCognition test census 0.14.0, counted 31 October 2026 from OpenAlex and ClinicalTrials.gov.
Task design
The trial sequence as the test runs in ConductCognition.
- Objects
- Six objects of ten cubes in four arms with three right-angle bends, drawn by the task's code and seen from 30 degrees above, and two more for practice.
- Pairs
- The right object is the same object or its mirror image, turned about the vertical axis by 0, 50, 100 or 150 degrees.
- Trial
- A 250 ms blank, then the pair until a key press or 7,500 ms. The left arrow key answers same object, the right arrow key mirror image.
- Blocks
- Two blocks of 48 trials (standard; one to three). Each block shows every object at every angle once as the same object and once as its mirror image, with no more than three of either kind in a row.
- Practice
- 8 trials with feedback on the two practice objects.
- Scoring
- The slope of mean correct same-object response time on angle, leaving out times under 100 ms and times more than 2 SD from their angle's mean.
The objects are drawn by this task's own code; no published figure set is used. Published slopes come from other objects and are not applied as norms.
Quality checks
Each session is marked valid, needs review or invalid, with the reason, before you see its scores.
Scored rows: mental_rotation_3d_trial test rows from the scored run, same figure or mirror image (chance 50%, half of each) within 7.5 s. Below chance invalidates and not above chance is flagged. One key on 90% of answers invalidates when accuracy is not above chance. Missed responses and responses under 100 ms follow the timed-test rule.
Why these rules
Accuracy significantly below chance (one-sided exact test, p < .05) cannot come from guessing; it means the response mapping was reversed or the task was not followed (Slick, Sherman and Iverson 1999 treat below-chance forced-choice performance as definite response bias). Chance-level accuracy can be a real result in impaired participants, so it is only flagged. One option on at least 90% of answered trials, when the correct options are balanced and accuracy is not above chance, means the answers did not depend on the items (the task counterpart of long-string responding in surveys; Curran 2016). Missed responses and responses under 100 ms keep the platform's timed-test rule: more than max(3, 25%) missed responses or more than max(2, 20%) responses under 100 ms invalidate, and any is flagged. A response under 100 ms cannot be a reaction to the stimulus.
Running this test
Settings you can change
| Setting | Standard | Allowed |
|---|---|---|
| Blocks of 48 trials | 2 | 1 to 3 |
Yearly plans can change settings within these limits. Free and pay-as-you-go studies use the standard settings.
Need a setting this test does not have?
Devices and languages
- Timed test: participants need a desktop or laptop with a mouse or trackpad. Participant devices
- Languages: English, Spanish, French, German, Italian, Portuguese (Brazil), Chinese (Simplified) and Japanese.
- Available on: Every plan, including the free plan.
- Recruiting online? See the setup guides for Prolific, Sona Systems, CloudResearch Connect and Qualtrics.
Cite and describe
Participants completed the 3D Mental Rotation Test in a web browser (ConductCognition task version 1.0.0, scoring version 1.0.0; Shepard RN, Metzler J, 1971; Ganis G, Kievit RA, 2015), with the standard settings (blocks of 48 trials: 2). The main score was rotation slope (increase in mean correct response time per degree of turn on same-object pairs, fitted across the four angles).
ConductCognition versions: task version 1.0.0, scoring version 1.0.0. Every export records the versions each session used, for a methods section.
- Shepard, R. N., & Metzler, J. (1971). Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. Science, 171(3972), 701-703. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.171.3972.701
- Ganis, G., & Kievit, R. A. (2015). A new set of three-dimensional shapes for investigating mental rotation processes: Validation data and stimulus set. Journal of Open Psychology Data, 3(1), e3. https://doi.org/10.5334/jopd.aiThe angles, timing, trial counts and response-time trimming.
- Hirschfeld, G., Thielsch, M. T., & Zernikow, B. (2013). Reliabilities of mental rotation tasks: Limits to the assessment of individual differences. BioMed Research International, 2013, 340568. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/340568The reliability of slopes pooled across objects.
Source papers
- Shepard RN, Metzler J (1971). Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. Science, 171(3972):701-703.Paradigm source, Adults
- Ganis G, Kievit RA (2015). A new set of three-dimensional shapes for investigating mental rotation processes: validation data and stimulus set. Journal of Open Psychology Data, 3(1):e3.N 54, Young adults
- Hirschfeld G, Thielsch MT, Zernikow B (2013). Reliabilities of mental rotation tasks: limits to the assessment of individual differences. BioMed Research International, 2013:340568.N 99, Adults
Questions
How long does the 3D Mental Rotation Test take?
About 6 to 8 minutes, as listed in the test library.
What device does a participant need?
Timed test: participants need a desktop or laptop with a mouse or trackpad. The browser must be Chrome, Edge, Firefox or Safari.
What scores does it produce?
Rotation Slope, Accuracy, Rotation Intercept, Mean Correct RT, Same-Object Accuracy, Mirror-Image Accuracy, Accuracy at 150 Degrees, Same-Object RT at 150 Degrees, Missed Pairs and Anticipations. Each session is also marked valid, needs review or invalid, with the reason.
How widely is the 3D Mental Rotation Test used in research?
84 papers from 2021 to 2025 name it in their title or abstract, up 25% compared with 2016 to 2020. That ranks it 200 of 395 test families in the ConductCognition test census (use grade D). Source: ConductCognition test census 0.14.0, counted 31 October 2026 from OpenAlex and ClinicalTrials.gov.
How much reliability evidence does the 3D Mental Rotation Test have?
In the published research, 2 papers report its test-retest reliability and 2 registered clinical studies use it as an outcome (evidence grade C in the ConductCognition test census).
Which settings can a researcher change?
Blocks of 48 trials (1 to 3). Settings can be changed on yearly plans; free and pay-as-you-go studies use the standard settings.
Which languages can participants use?
Participants can take this test in English, Spanish, French, German, Italian, Portuguese (Brazil), Chinese (Simplified) and Japanese. English is on every plan, and the other languages come with yearly plans. Have a native speaker read the machine-translated text before launch.
Is this a clinical test?
No. ConductCognition is for research use only. It runs, scores and exports the test; clinical interpretation is outside the platform.
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